Each of these strengthens one of the groups above. Sources are listed below.
- Stop scolding non-voters
- A 2025 meta-analysis of 33 studies found high freedom-threatening language increases anger, negative thoughts and psychological reactance. Commands like “must” and “have to” consistently produce more reactance than autonomy-supportive language.
- Respect the reasons people don't vote
- Pew's post-2024 study found very different reasons among nonvoters: 35% believed their vote wouldn't make a difference, 31% disliked politics, 18% cited registration or eligibility, 15% inconvenience and 8% forgetting.
- Don't hide persuasion inside GOTV
- Center for Civic Design found participants wanted clear distinctions between advocacy and nonpartisan voting information. Prominent ballot-issue advocacy alienated some undecided and opposing voters and generated distrust.
- Make voting feel possible
- Nickerson & Rogers' 2008 field experiment found that helping contacted voters formulate a specific voting plan increased turnout by 4.1 percentage points, while a standard encouragement call did not significantly increase turnout.
- Design for trust, not turnout alone
- Explicit social-pressure tactics can increase turnout dramatically — Gerber, Green and Larimer's strongest treatment raised it about 8 points — but research also documents anger, privacy concerns and backlash toward the sender.
- Use a positive alternative to shame
- Three randomized field experiments found that thanking people for voting previously increased subsequent turnout, with effects distinct from social pressure — an evidence-based substitute for guilt.